\u201cPounding earth or making mud bricks out of earth [as opposed to firing clay bricks] “It’s one of the most universal and ancient building techniques,” says Arik Chen, 51, director of the Zaha Hadid Foundation in London. “It keeps spaces cool when it’s hot and warm when it’s cold, and it draws on indigenous knowledge and traditions.”<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
2100-500 B.C.<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Ziggurats throughout ancient Mesopotamia (most of modern-day Iraq, northeast Syria and southeast Turkey)<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/figure>\n<\/p>\n
\u201cThe use of mud brick goes back to our earliest constructions,\u201d Chen says.<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
221-206 B.C.<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
The Great Wall of China outside Beijing<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/figure>\n<\/p>\n
\u201cMost people don\u2019t realize that the sections [of the Great Wall] Everything made during the Qin Dynasty was made of clay bricks. \u201d<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
2013<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Wa Shan Guesthouse in Hangzhou, China, by Wang Shu<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/figure>\n<\/p>\n
\u201cWithin mainstream contemporary architecture, there\u2019s been a lot of attention given to revisiting these sustainable, beautiful and poetic [approaches to working with earth]\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/div>\n
<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Brick<\/h2>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n
\u201cI\u2019m drawn to brick for its enduring versatility and its ability to create both monumental and humble architecture,\u201d says the architect Lyndon Neri, 61, a founding partner of the Shanghai-based Neri&Hu Design and Research Office. \u201cIn brick, I find a material that\u2019s both rooted and resonant, tying architecture to earth, craft and time.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/div>\n
<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
circa 2100 B.C.<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
The Ziggurat of Ur near Nasiriyah, Iraq<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/p>\n\n
[–><\/p>\n
[-1–>[-1–>[0–>Bryan Denton for The New York Times<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n
<\/figure>\n
<\/p>\n
\u201cA stepped pyramid constructed from sun-dried mud bricks with a fired-brick exterior, it\u2019s one of the world\u2019s earliest and biggest brick structures,\u201d Neri says.<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
fourth century<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Jetavanaramaya in Anuradhapura, Sri Lanka<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/p>\n\n
[–><\/p>\n
[-1–>[-1–>[0–>Education Images\/Universal Images Group<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n
<\/figure>\n
<\/p>\n
\u201cSaid to be made of over 90 million bricks, it\u2019s one of the largest brick structures ever built, and the tallest stupa in the ancient world.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
1962-74<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Indian Institute of Management in Ahmedabad by Louis I. Kahn<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/figure>\n<\/p>\n
\u201cA monumental architectural masterpiece, the structures are defined by exposed load-bearing brick walls and dramatic geometric perforations, creating a profound sense of light, shadow and mass.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/div>\n
<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Stone<\/h2>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n
\u201cStone architecture is historically essential as the most permanent physical record of civilization, offering an authoritative testament to technological skill, social organization and cultural values,\u201d Neri says. \u201cFrom ancient pyramids on, it\u2019s been harnessed to express power, sacred belief and civic identity while driving key innovations such as the Roman arch and the Gothic vault.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/div>\n
<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
2575-2465 B.C.<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
The Pyramids of Giza in Egypt<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/p>\n\n
[–><\/p>\n
[-1–>[-1–>[0–>Rainer Hackenberg\/Visum\/Redux<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n
<\/figure>\n
<\/p>\n
\u201cBuilt mostly in limestone, they\u2019re the ultimate symbols of monumental stone construction that exude permanence.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
circa 128<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
The Pantheon in Rome<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/p>\n\n
[–><\/p>\n
[-1–>[-1–>[0–>JC Milhet\/Hans Lucas\/Redux<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n
<\/figure>\n
<\/p>\n
\u201cMade of Roman concrete, travertine, marble and brick, it\u2019s famous for its massive unreinforced concrete dome and stone portico,\u201d Neri says.<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
12th century<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Angkor Wat in Siem Reap, Cambodia<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/p>\n\n
[–><\/p>\n
[-1–>[-1–>[0–>Sergio Pitamitz Image Library\/Alamy<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n
<\/figure>\n
<\/p>\n
\u201cA powerful manifestation of an architecture that represents a culture, with carved drawings and writings on the stone.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/div>\n
<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Wood<\/h2>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n
\u201cWood represents a core architectural truth,\u201d Neri says. \u201cIt serves as the temporary scaffold for building our world, and as the finished material that creates a sense of domestic warmth.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/div>\n
<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
circa 491<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
The Hanging Temple in Hunyuan, China<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/figure>\n<\/p>\n
\u201cThis wooden monastery clings to a cliff via crossbeam frameworks inserted into the rock,\u201d Neri says. \u201cIt\u2019s a breathtaking example of adaptive, risk-defying timber construction.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
1056<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
The Wooden Pagoda of Yingxian near Shuozhou, China<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/p>\n\n
[–><\/p>\n
[-1–>[-1–>[0–>Zhan Yan\/Xinhua News Agency\/Getty Images<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n
<\/figure>\n
<\/p>\n
\u201cThe world\u2019s oldest and tallest multistory wooden pagoda, it\u2019s a nine-level marvel built entirely without nails.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
circa 1181<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Borgund Stave Church in Norway<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/figure>\n<\/p>\n
\u201cThis medieval Christian church has a unique resemblance to Viking shipbuilding that, with its Christian iconography, creates a distinct Northern European wooden architectural form.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/div>\n
<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Plaster<\/h2>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n
\u201cIt\u2019s a material you see every day,\u201d says Edwin Chan, 59, the founder of EC3, a Los Angeles-based architecture and design studio. \u201cBut people don\u2019t think about it; it\u2019s a blank canvas for the light.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/div>\n
<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
1305<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Scrovegni Chapel in Padua, Italy, by Giotto<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/figure>\n<\/p>\n
\u201cThis building has amazing blue plaster,\u201d says Chan, \u201cwith south-facing windows that shine light on Giotto\u2019s frescoes.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
1955<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Chapelle Notre-Dame du Haut in Ronchamp, France, by Le Corbusier<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/figure>\n<\/p>\n
\u201cThe combination of lime and marble dust here has a rough texture \u2014 the opposite of Venetian plaster. But the texture brings the walls to life.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/div>\n
<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Glass<\/h2>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n
\u201cArchitecture is about sculpting with light,\u201d says Chan. \u201cGlass is a tool to manipulate the light and make it come alive.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/div>\n
<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
1248<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Sainte-Chapelle in Paris<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/p>\n\n
[–><\/p>\n
[-1–>[-1–>[0–>\u00a9 NPL-DEA Picture Library\/Bridgeman Images<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n
<\/figure>\n
<\/p>\n
\u201cYou feel the materiality of the glass and the light in the stained-glass windows and Gothic architecture,\u201d Chan says.<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
1949<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
The Glass House in New Canaan, Conn., by Philip Johnson<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/p>\n\n
[–><\/p>\n
[-1–>[-1–>[0–>Eirik Johnson\/The Glass House Foundation<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n
<\/figure>\n
<\/p>\n
\u201cIn midcentury architecture, the glass wall is there to make the building disappear.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
2014<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Fondation Louis Vuitton in Paris by Frank Gehry<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/p>\n\n
[–><\/p>\n
[-1–>[-1–>[0–>Hufton + Crow\/View Pictures\/Superstock<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n
<\/figure>\n
<\/p>\n
While working at Gehry Partners, Chan helped design the museum. \u201cIt\u2019s a glass building, but we didn\u2019t use glass for transparency \u2014 it\u2019s used to its full sculptural effect, playing between being transparent and translucent, reflecting and refracting the environment.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/div>\n
<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Steel<\/h2>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n
\u201cDuring the Industrial Revolution, steel allowed us to build higher, bigger and more open spaces,\u201d Chen says. \u201cBecause it\u2019s so strong, you don\u2019t need as many columns close together.\u201d Today, however, Chen points out, \u201csteel\u2019s carbon intensity is a major concern.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/div>\n
<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
1885<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
Home Insurance Building in Chicago by William Le Baron Jenney<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/p>\n\n
[–><\/p>\n
[-1–>[-1–>[0–>Archive Photos\/Getty Images<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n
<\/figure>\n
<\/p>\n
\u201cWhile it mostly features iron,\u201d says Chen, \u201cits incorporation of steel \u2014 an iron alloy \u2014 helped pioneer the era of steel-frame skyscrapers.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
1951<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
860-880 Lake Shore Drive in Chicago by Ludwig Mies van der Rohe<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/figure>\n<\/p>\n
\u201cIf you look at it from the bottom, the vertical fins on the facades are all steel I-beams, celebrating the aesthetics of the industrial material.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
1977<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
The Pompidou Center in Paris by Renzo Piano and Richard Rogers<\/h3>\n<\/p>\n <\/p>\n[-1–> <\/p>\n\n
[–><\/p>\n
[-1–>[-1–>[0–>Loic Venance\/AFP\/Getty Images<\/span><\/p>\n <\/div>\n<\/div>\n
<\/figure>\n
<\/p>\n
The architects were \u201cmain figures in the high-tech architecture movement of the 1980s and \u201990s, which was about considering a building as a machine. The Pompidou is about expressing the infrastructure on the exterior, and that\u2019s all steel.\u201d<\/p>\n
<\/div>\n
<\/p>\n
<\/p>\n
These interviews have been edited and condensed.<\/em><\/p>\n<\/div>\n
<\/p>\n\nMore in Architecture and Design<\/h2>\n<\/section>\n [-1–>[0–>See the rest of the issue<\/div>\n
#Learning #history #architecture #materials<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"
How to Be Cultured Menu Architecture and Design [–> Earth \u201cPounding earth or making mud bricks out of earth [as opposed to firing clay bricks] “It’s one of the most universal and ancient building techniques,” says Arik Chen, 51, director of the Zaha Hadid Foundation in London. “It keeps spaces cool when it’s hot and … Read more<\/a><\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":1,"featured_media":536,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[827,867,842,870,871,868,869,642],"class_list":["post-535","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-uncategorized","tag-architecture","tag-brick-and-tile","tag-history","tag-learning","tag-materials","tag-rocks-and-stones","tag-steel-and-iron","tag-tculture-2026"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/yasbou.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/535","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/yasbou.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/yasbou.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/yasbou.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/users\/1"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/yasbou.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcomments&post=535"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/yasbou.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/posts\/535\/revisions"}],"wp:featuredmedia":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/yasbou.com\/index.php?rest_route=\/wp\/v2\/media\/536"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/yasbou.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fmedia&parent=535"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/yasbou.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Fcategories&post=535"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/yasbou.com\/index.php?rest_route=%2Fwp%2Fv2%2Ftags&post=535"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}